Lesson 8: Introduction to Historical Inquiry

1. Introduction to Historical Inquiry

Historical inquiry is the process of investigating past events to understand how societies, cultures, and individuals have evolved over time. This method is essential to the study of history because it allows us to piece together narratives and learn from the past in order to understand the present and prepare for the future.

At its core, historical inquiry involves asking questions about the past, gathering evidence, and analyzing that evidence to form interpretations. For example, a historian might ask, "What were the causes of World War I?" To answer this question, they would examine primary sources such as letters, government documents, and newspaper articles from the time, as well as secondary sources like research papers and textbooks written by other historians. This process is often complex because the information available can be incomplete or biased, but historians use a variety of methods to cross-check facts and ensure accuracy.

The study of history is important for several reasons. First, it helps us develop a sense of identity by showing us where we come from. Understanding the history of our country, culture, and community gives us a deeper appreciation of who we are today. For Canadians, this might mean learning about key events such as Confederation, the fur trade, or the experiences of Indigenous peoples.

Second, history provides valuable lessons that can help shape the future. By learning about the successes and failures of societies in the past, we can make more informed decisions about current events. For instance, understanding the causes of conflicts or economic crises can help modern leaders avoid repeating the same mistakes.

Finally, historical inquiry encourages critical thinking. Historians must analyze evidence, evaluate different interpretations, and consider the reliability of their sources. These skills are not only essential for studying history but also for understanding the world around us in an age where information is everywhere but not always accurate. By questioning and evaluating the past, students develop the ability to think critically about current issues and their sources of information.

Historians gather evidence through many methods. Some focus on written documents, such as treaties, speeches, and legal records. Others might study visual evidence like paintings, photographs, and maps. In recent years, historians have also begun to examine digital records, including emails and social media posts, to understand contemporary events. Additionally, artifacts uncovered through archaeology—such as tools, pottery, and clothing—provide crucial insights into societies that left behind little written evidence.

In this lesson, we will explore the various challenges historians face when trying to gather information about past societies. We will also examine the methods they use to overcome these challenges, including how they assess the reliability of different sources and the tools they use to build a coherent picture of the past. By the end of this lesson, you should have a better understanding of how historians work and why their role is so important in helping us learn from history.

2. The Challenges of Studying the Past

Studying the past can be incredibly rewarding, but it is also full of challenges. Historians face significant difficulties in their efforts to understand societies, cultures, and individuals from bygone eras. These challenges arise from the fact that much of the evidence needed to reconstruct the past has either been lost, destroyed, or is incomplete. Even when evidence does exist, it can be biased, making it hard to arrive at an objective understanding of history.

I. Lost or Destroyed Sources

One of the biggest obstacles historians face is the disappearance of historical records. Over time, natural disasters, wars, and the simple passage of time have led to the destruction of countless documents, artifacts, and other historical materials. For instance, the destruction of the Library of Alexandria—an ancient center of knowledge in Egypt—resulted in the loss of an enormous number of historical records from ancient civilizations.

In Canadian history, the same issue exists. Many early records of Indigenous societies were never written down because these cultures relied primarily on oral traditions to pass down knowledge and history. As a result, much of what we know about pre-colonial Indigenous peoples in Canada is based on the archaeological remains they left behind or accounts written by European settlers, which can be biased or incomplete.

II. Bias in Historical Sources

Another major challenge is that even when historical sources do survive, they are often biased. People in the past, like people today, wrote with specific purposes and audiences in mind. This means that many historical documents reflect the views, values, and interests of the people who created them rather than an objective account of what happened. For example, records written by European settlers in Canada often portrayed Indigenous peoples as "savages" or inferior, which skewed the historical narrative to justify colonization.

Historians must carefully evaluate the bias in sources. When analyzing a document, they ask questions like: Who wrote this? What was their motivation? Who was their intended audience? How might their perspective have influenced their description of events? By answering these questions, historians can begin to account for bias and develop a more balanced understanding of the past.

III. Incompleteness of Historical Records

Historical evidence is often incomplete. Very few societies have left behind comprehensive records of their everyday life. For example, while we might have a wealth of information about the lives of European kings and queens, we know far less about the ordinary people who lived under their rule. In Canadian history, much of what we know about the fur trade comes from the journals and letters of European traders, but we have far fewer written records from the Indigenous peoples who were their trading partners.

This lack of evidence makes it hard to get a full picture of the past. Historians must piece together fragments of information from different sources—such as artifacts, written records, and oral histories—to create a narrative that makes sense. However, there will always be gaps in our knowledge, and these gaps leave room for debate and reinterpretation.

IV. Time Gaps and Changing Perspectives

As time passes, it becomes harder to connect the evidence left behind with the context in which it was created. People today live in a world that is very different from the past, and the language, customs, and values of historical societies can seem alien to modern observers. This time gap makes it challenging to fully understand the significance of historical events and documents.

In Canada, for instance, colonial records often portrayed European settlement as an overwhelmingly positive event, ignoring the devastating impact it had on Indigenous populations. Historians today, with the benefit of hindsight and new sources of information, have re-evaluated this narrative to give a fuller picture of the harms caused by colonization.

V. Case Studies from Canadian History

In Canadian history, there are several examples that illustrate the challenges of studying the past. One significant challenge lies in reconstructing the history of Indigenous peoples before European contact. Without written records, historians and archaeologists must rely on oral histories, traditions passed down through generations by word of mouth. While oral histories are rich and valuable sources, they also change over time, which can make it difficult to verify specific details or dates.

Another example is the difficulty in interpreting archaeological finds. In some cases, archaeologists in Canada have uncovered artifacts that provide clues about the daily life of Indigenous communities. However, without written explanations or complete contexts, it can be hard to determine the exact purpose of these objects. For example, stone tools or pottery fragments found in ancient Canadian sites give us some insight into how people lived, but we may never fully understand their cultural or spiritual significance.

3. Types of Historical Sources

To understand the past, historians rely on a wide variety of sources. These sources are divided into two main categories: primary sources and secondary sources. Both types of sources are crucial for historical inquiry, as they provide evidence and perspectives that help historians reconstruct and interpret historical events.

I. Primary Sources

Primary sources are firsthand, original records created during the time period being studied. They provide direct evidence about historical events, people, or societies and can take many forms. Some common examples include letters, diaries, photographs, legal documents, and artifacts.

a. Written Documents

One of the most valuable types of primary sources is written documents. These include personal letters, government records, newspapers, and treaties. For example, the Canadian Constitution Act of 1867 is a primary source that helps historians understand the legal framework that shaped the nation’s formation. Diaries and letters, like those from Canadian soldiers during World War I, give personal insights into historical events that might not be captured in official accounts.

Written documents are important because they reflect the thoughts, actions, and experiences of people who lived during the time in question. However, they must be carefully analyzed to understand the biases and perspectives of their authors.

b. Artifacts and Physical Evidence

Artifacts, such as tools, clothing, or pottery, are also primary sources. These items offer a glimpse into the everyday lives of people who may not have left behind written records. For instance, Indigenous peoples in Canada used tools and art to record aspects of their culture. These artifacts provide essential insights into their daily life, spirituality, and social organization.

Physical evidence is especially important for societies that did not have a written language. In such cases, historians and archaeologists rely on the physical remains of buildings, tools, weapons, and other objects to piece together how people lived. For example, the Viking settlement at L’Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland provides a valuable primary source for understanding early European exploration in North America, even though no written documents from the Vikings exist.

c. Oral Histories

In many cultures, particularly Indigenous cultures in Canada, oral histories are a primary source. Oral traditions include stories, songs, and speeches passed down through generations. These narratives provide valuable information about the values, beliefs, and events that shaped a community's past. For example, the oral histories of First Nations, Métis, and Inuit peoples have been critical to understanding their traditions and experiences, especially in the absence of written records.

However, oral histories must be treated with care, as they can change over time. It’s essential for historians to compare oral traditions with other types of evidence, such as archaeological findings, to get a fuller understanding of the past.

II. Secondary Sources

Secondary sources are interpretations and analyses of historical events created by someone who did not directly experience the events. These sources are typically written by historians, scholars, or researchers after the fact, using primary sources as evidence. Secondary sources are essential for understanding how historians interpret the past and for gaining insight into debates or differing perspectives on historical events.

a. Books and Textbooks

Many secondary sources come in the form of books or textbooks. These works synthesize information from primary sources and other secondary sources to provide a broader understanding of a historical period or event. For example, Canadian history textbooks often cover key events such as Confederation, the fur trade, and Indigenous relations, while providing context and analysis.

Textbooks are useful because they present well-researched interpretations of history, often providing different viewpoints on controversial events. However, it’s important to remember that every historian brings their own perspective to their writing, and these interpretations can change over time as new evidence is uncovered.

b. Research Articles and Essays

Academic research articles and essays are another form of secondary source. Historians publish articles in scholarly journals to present new interpretations, debate existing ideas, and contribute to ongoing discussions in the field of history. These articles are often based on a combination of primary sources and other secondary sources, and they can introduce new ways of understanding historical events.

For example, recent scholarship on Canada’s residential school system has used a combination of survivor testimonies (primary sources) and previous research (secondary sources) to explore the lasting impact of the system on Indigenous communities.

c. Documentaries and Other Media

Historical documentaries, films, and podcasts are secondary sources that provide an accessible way to learn about the past. These media often draw on both primary and secondary sources to present a narrative that is engaging and educational. For instance, documentaries on Canadian history, such as those produced by the CBC, use archival footage, interviews with historians, and dramatizations to illustrate key moments in the nation's past.

Like other secondary sources, documentaries offer interpretations of historical events. It’s important for viewers to think critically about the information presented and consider the filmmaker’s perspective and the sources they used.

III. Assessing Credibility of Sources

Not all sources are equally reliable, and it is essential for historians to evaluate the credibility of the sources they use. This process is called source criticism. When assessing a source, historians ask questions such as:

• Who created this source, and what was their perspective?

• What was the purpose of this source? Was it meant to inform, persuade, or entertain?

• When and where was this source created, and how does that affect its reliability?

For example, a diary written by a Canadian settler in the 19th century provides valuable insights, but it may be biased against Indigenous peoples, reflecting the attitudes of the time. Similarly, a textbook published in the 1950s may portray historical events differently than one published today, as modern historians have access to new sources and perspectives.

IV. Historiography: The Study of How History is Written

Historiography refers to the study of how history has been written and interpreted over time. Historians recognize that interpretations of historical events change as new sources are discovered and societal values evolve. For example, early Canadian history books often glorified European settlers and overlooked the experiences of Indigenous peoples. Today, historians are more aware of these biases and work to present a more balanced view of the past.

By understanding historiography, students of history can appreciate that our understanding of the past is always evolving. Historical inquiry is not about finding definitive answers, but about asking better questions and using evidence to explore different interpretations.

4. The Role of Archaeology in History

While historians rely on written records, archaeology plays a critical role in uncovering the past, especially for societies that left behind little or no written documentation. Archaeology involves the study of human history through the excavation and analysis of material remains, such as tools, buildings, pottery, and other artifacts. These physical remnants help historians understand how people lived, what they valued, and how their societies functioned.

I. What is Archaeology?

Archaeology is the scientific study of past human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. Archaeologists study a wide range of objects, from ancient ruins to everyday tools, to learn about the social, economic, and cultural aspects of historical societies. In doing so, they help fill in the gaps left by written records, giving us a fuller understanding of the past.

For example, in Canada, written records of Indigenous peoples before European contact are scarce because many First Nations, Inuit, and Métis communities used oral traditions to pass down their history. Archaeology has provided crucial insights into these societies by uncovering tools, pottery, and other artifacts that show how they lived and interacted with their environment long before European settlers arrived.

II. Methods Used by Archaeologists

Archaeologists use a variety of methods to locate and study ancient sites. Some of the most common techniques include:

a. Excavation

Excavation is the most well-known archaeological method. It involves digging into the ground to uncover artifacts and features of ancient societies, such as buildings, graves, or fortifications. Careful excavation allows archaeologists to document the exact location of artifacts and features, which is important for understanding how ancient people lived.

In Canada, excavations have revealed important historical sites, such as the Viking settlement at L’Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland. This site, discovered in the 1960s, provided the first definitive proof of Norse exploration in North America, dating back to around 1000 AD. Excavations at the site uncovered the remains of Norse-style buildings, tools, and other artifacts, confirming that Vikings had settled in the region for a time.

b. Carbon Dating

Carbon dating is a scientific technique used to determine the age of organic materials, such as wood or bone. This method measures the amount of radioactive carbon-14 in a sample, allowing archaeologists to estimate when an artifact was created or when a living organism died. Carbon dating is especially useful in dating artifacts from prehistoric times, before written records existed.

For example, carbon dating has helped archaeologists accurately date Indigenous sites across Canada, providing a timeline for how long various groups have lived in different regions. It has also been used to date ancient artifacts, such as tools or pottery, found in these areas.

c. Artifact Analysis

Once artifacts are excavated, archaeologists analyze them to learn about the people who made and used them. This can involve studying the material composition, style, and craftsmanship of an object to determine its function and significance. For example, pottery found in a burial site might reveal information about religious beliefs or social status, while stone tools can show how people hunted or farmed.

In Canada, the study of Indigenous artifacts has revealed much about pre-contact societies. For instance, the design of stone tools used by the Inuit in the Arctic provides insights into how they adapted to their harsh environment, using locally available materials like bone, ivory, and stone to hunt seals, whales, and caribou.

III. Famous Archaeological Finds in Canadian History

Canada has been the site of several important archaeological discoveries that have deepened our understanding of its history.

a. L’Anse aux Meadows

As mentioned earlier, L’Anse aux Meadows is one of the most significant archaeological sites in Canada. This Viking settlement is the only known Norse site in North America, and its discovery reshaped our understanding of early European exploration in the New World. Artifacts such as iron nails, a bronze cloak pin, and stone hearths have provided archaeologists with evidence of Norse craftsmanship and daily life.

b. Indigenous Burial Sites

Across Canada, the discovery of ancient Indigenous burial sites has offered critical insights into the spiritual and social practices of these communities. For example, the excavation of burial mounds in Ontario and British Columbia has revealed grave goods like tools, pottery, and jewelry, suggesting that the people who lived there had complex social hierarchies and spiritual beliefs.

These finds have helped historians reconstruct Indigenous histories that were previously unknown or misunderstood. In many cases, Indigenous communities work closely with archaeologists to ensure that excavations respect their cultural heritage.

IV. Ethics of Archaeology on Indigenous Burial Grounds

Archaeology, especially on Indigenous burial grounds, raises important ethical questions. Indigenous burial sites are not just historical artifacts; they are deeply sacred spaces with ongoing cultural and spiritual significance for Indigenous communities. Disturbing these sites through excavation can cause great emotional pain and spiritual harm to Indigenous peoples, as it disrupts the resting places of their ancestors.

In Canada, these concerns have led to stronger collaboration between Indigenous communities and archaeologists. The ethical approach to archaeological work on Indigenous lands emphasizes respect for the cultural beliefs of the communities involved. This means that archaeologists must seek permission and guidance from Indigenous groups before beginning any excavation. In some cases, excavation may be limited or entirely avoided to honor the wishes of the community.

For example, in 2001, the remains of approximately 400 people were discovered in an ancient Huron-Wendat burial site in Vaughan, Ontario. The Huron-Wendat First Nation worked closely with archaeologists to ensure that the remains were respectfully handled. The collaboration resulted in the repatriation and reburial of the remains according to traditional customs. This ethical approach acknowledges the importance of treating human remains and burial grounds with dignity, while also balancing the need to learn about the past.

Today, archaeological work on Indigenous sites is guided by principles of reconciliation and cultural respect, ensuring that Indigenous voices are central in the decision-making process. By involving Indigenous communities, archaeologists can approach their work in a way that is respectful and culturally sensitive, ensuring that their research supports rather than harms the people whose history they are studying.

V. How Archaeology Supports Historical Inquiry

Archaeology supports historical inquiry by providing physical evidence that can confirm, challenge, or expand what we know from written sources. For example, while the historical record of the fur trade in Canada comes primarily from the journals and letters of European traders, archaeological finds like trading posts and fur-bearing animal remains provide additional context about the economic and social interactions between Europeans and Indigenous peoples.

Archaeology also allows historians to explore periods and places where written records are scarce or nonexistent. By analyzing artifacts and other material remains, archaeologists can uncover the everyday lives of people who may not have been represented in official records, such as women, children, and lower-class individuals.

5. Analyzing Historical Evidence: Case Studies

Analyzing historical evidence is one of the most critical tasks historians undertake. It involves carefully examining sources, identifying their reliability, and understanding their context. Since historical records often provide incomplete or biased accounts of the past, historians must use critical thinking to piece together a coherent and accurate picture. In this section, we will explore how historians analyze evidence through two specific case studies: the Canadian fur trade and the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) of Canada.

1. Case Study 1: The Fur Trade in Canada

The fur trade was a cornerstone of early Canadian history, shaping the economic, social, and political landscape of what would become modern-day Canada. However, understanding the fur trade’s complex history requires analyzing multiple types of historical evidence, including diaries, trade records, oral histories, and archaeological findings.

a. Primary Sources from the Fur Trade

The fur trade left behind a wealth of primary sources, such as journals, letters, and trade records. For example, Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC) officials kept detailed records of their business dealings, including quantities of furs exchanged, the goods traded with Indigenous peoples, and the day-to-day operations of trading posts.

One famous primary source is the journals of Samuel Hearne, an HBC explorer who traveled through northern Canada in the 18th century. His writings provide detailed descriptions of Indigenous communities, wildlife, and landscapes, and they offer insight into the relationships between European traders and Indigenous peoples. However, while these documents are invaluable, they must be read critically. Hearne’s perspective as a European trader meant his accounts may have been biased, particularly in how he described Indigenous cultures.

b. Archaeological Evidence from Trading Posts

In addition to written records, archaeologists have unearthed valuable artifacts from fur trading posts across Canada. These include items like trading beads, metal tools, and animal remains. Such artifacts help historians understand the daily operations of trading posts and the types of goods exchanged between Europeans and Indigenous peoples.

At the famous Fort York site in Ontario, archaeologists have discovered animal bones that reveal which species were hunted for their furs and meat. Combined with written records, these physical remains allow historians to reconstruct the economic patterns of the fur trade, as well as the impact of European goods on Indigenous communities.

c. Indigenous Oral Histories and Perspectives

One of the most significant challenges in studying the fur trade is understanding the perspective of Indigenous peoples, who were essential participants in the fur trade but left fewer written records. To address this gap, historians turn to oral histories passed down through Indigenous communities.

For example, Cree and Métis oral traditions provide crucial insights into the role of Indigenous women in the fur trade. These women were often key negotiators and intermediaries between European traders and Indigenous communities, but their contributions are rarely mentioned in European records. By combining oral histories with written and archaeological evidence, historians can develop a more comprehensive view of the fur trade’s social and economic dynamics.

d. Challenges in Interpreting Fur Trade Evidence

Analyzing evidence from the fur trade presents several challenges. First, the documents written by European traders often reflect the biases and cultural misunderstandings of the time. These records were typically produced by men in positions of power, who may have marginalized or misrepresented the experiences of Indigenous peoples. As a result, historians must use a critical eye when interpreting such sources and must seek out Indigenous perspectives to provide balance.

Second, the fur trade involved many different cultural groups, each with its own language, customs, and interests. This diversity makes it difficult to construct a single narrative that accurately reflects the complexity of the fur trade. Instead, historians must piece together evidence from multiple perspectives, acknowledging the trade’s impact on both European settlers and Indigenous communities.

2. Case Study 2: The Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC)

The Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) of Canada was established in 2008 to investigate the history and legacy of the residential school system, which forcibly removed Indigenous children from their families and placed them in church-run institutions. The TRC gathered testimonies from survivors and other stakeholders, documenting the widespread abuse and trauma that resulted from the system. Analyzing the evidence collected by the TRC provides insight into how historians use testimony, documents, and physical evidence to understand past injustices.

a. Testimonies as Primary Sources

One of the key sources of evidence for the TRC was the testimonies of residential school survivors. Over the course of several years, thousands of survivors came forward to share their experiences. These testimonies are primary sources that provide firsthand accounts of the abuse, neglect, and cultural loss experienced by Indigenous children.

For example, many survivors spoke about the emotional and physical abuse they endured at the hands of school staff. Others described the isolation they felt from their families and communities, as well as the loss of their language and cultural identity. These testimonies are invaluable because they give voice to the individuals who lived through the residential school system and provide a personal perspective on its impact.

However, analyzing testimony presents unique challenges. Memories can be fragmented or affected by the passage of time, and survivors’ experiences can vary widely. Historians must handle such evidence with care, ensuring that each testimony is treated with respect while also corroborating it with other sources of evidence.

b. Government and Church Documents

In addition to survivor testimonies, the TRC examined a vast collection of government and church records. These documents provide crucial context for understanding how the residential school system was designed and operated. For example, letters between government officials and church leaders reveal the intent behind the schools’ creation—often described as a means of assimilating Indigenous children into Euro-Canadian culture.

The Indian Act of 1876, which laid the groundwork for the establishment of residential schools, is a critical primary source that shows the government’s role in this process. Other documents, such as school attendance records and inspection reports, provide further evidence of how these institutions functioned.

While these records are essential for documenting the policies that underpinned the residential school system, they also reflect the biases of the officials who created them. Church and government officials often downplayed or ignored the abuse happening in the schools, making it essential for historians to compare these documents with survivor testimonies.

c. Archaeological Evidence of Residential Schools

In recent years, archaeological investigations have uncovered unmarked graves at former residential school sites, further illuminating the dark history of these institutions. Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) has been used to locate burial sites, providing physical evidence of the high mortality rates among children at these schools. These discoveries have helped corroborate the stories told by survivors and shed light on the full scope of the residential school system’s impact.

For example, in 2021, the discovery of 215 unmarked graves at the site of the former Kamloops Indian Residential School in British Columbia made headlines around the world. This finding, along with others across Canada, has provided new evidence of the systemic abuse and neglect that occurred at these schools.

d. The Role of Historians in the TRC

The TRC’s work has highlighted the importance of historical reconciliation. By gathering evidence from multiple sources—testimonies, documents, and physical remains—historians have played a crucial role in bringing the truth about residential schools to light. Their work has helped raise awareness about the ongoing legacy of colonialism in Canada and has contributed to calls for justice and reparations.

Historians working with the TRC have also emphasized the importance of respecting Indigenous perspectives and cultural protocols. For instance, many Indigenous communities have specific practices for how stories and testimonies should be shared, and historians must be mindful of these protocols when handling sensitive evidence.

6. The Historian’s Toolkit: Methods of Historical Inquiry

Historians use a variety of methods and tools to investigate the past. These tools help them organize, analyze, and interpret evidence to draw meaningful conclusions about historical events, people, and societies. In this section, we’ll explore key methods historians use to conduct historical inquiry: chronology, contextualization, corroboration, and sourcing. These methods help historians create a coherent and accurate picture of the past while accounting for bias and incomplete evidence.

I. Chronology: Organizing Events in Time

Chronology refers to the arrangement of events in the order they occurred. Understanding the sequence of historical events is critical because it allows historians to trace causes and effects over time. By constructing a timeline, historians can see how one event leads to another and how developments in different parts of the world are interconnected.

For example, to study the causes of World War I, historians begin by placing key events in order: the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in 1914, the complex web of alliances between European nations, and the buildup of military tensions. This timeline helps historians understand how these factors combined to trigger a global conflict. In Canadian history, creating a chronological framework is equally important. Events such as Confederation in 1867, the signing of various treaties with Indigenous peoples, and the rise of industrialization are placed in context to see how one development influenced the next.

Chronology is more than just listing events. Historians must determine which events were most important and how they influenced later developments. For example, a historian might explore how the Great Depression of the 1930s led to economic and political changes in Canada, such as the rise of social welfare programs. Understanding when and why these changes occurred helps us see the broader impacts of historical events on society.

II. Contextualization: Understanding Events in Their Broader Context

Contextualization involves placing events in their broader historical, social, political, and economic contexts. This method helps historians understand why certain events happened the way they did and how different factors shaped the outcomes.

For instance, to understand the history of Canadian residential schools, it’s essential to consider the broader context of European colonization and policies aimed at assimilating Indigenous peoples. These schools were part of a larger effort to impose European cultural values on Indigenous children, severing their ties to their communities and languages. Contextualization helps historians see that residential schools were not isolated institutions but part of a larger colonial strategy that deeply affected Indigenous peoples.

In another example, contextualizing the fur trade in Canada requires looking at the global demand for furs, European economic interests, and the role of Indigenous peoples as essential partners in the trade. By placing the fur trade within its larger economic and social context, historians can better understand how it shaped the relationships between Europeans and Indigenous nations, as well as the development of early Canadian economies.

Without contextualization, it’s easy to misunderstand or oversimplify historical events. Context allows historians to explain not only what happened, but why it happened in that specific way and at that time.

III. Corroboration: Comparing Different Sources

Historians rarely rely on a single source to draw conclusions about the past. Instead, they use corroboration to compare different sources of evidence and check for consistency. This method helps historians identify contradictions, biases, and gaps in the historical record.

For example, when studying early accounts of European settlers in Canada, historians compare written records from settlers with oral histories from Indigenous communities. While settlers often portrayed Indigenous peoples in negative or simplistic ways, Indigenous oral traditions offer a more nuanced understanding of their cultures, social structures, and interactions with Europeans. By corroborating these sources, historians can create a more balanced and accurate account of Canada’s colonial history.

Another example of corroboration is the use of both written records and archaeological evidence to study the fur trade. Documents from the Hudson’s Bay Company provide detailed records of trade, but they may not fully reflect the experiences of Indigenous participants. By examining artifacts from trading posts, such as tools, beads, and animal remains, historians can verify and expand upon the written records, giving a fuller picture of the economic and cultural exchanges that took place.

Corroboration is also essential when studying controversial or disputed events. For example, survivor testimonies from residential schools are corroborated with government and church records, as well as physical evidence from archaeological investigations, to create a comprehensive and reliable account of the residential school system’s impact.

IV. Sourcing: Analyzing Who Created a Source and Why

Sourcing involves examining the origin of a historical source to understand its reliability and perspective. Historians ask several questions when analyzing a source:

• Who created this source?

• When and where was it created?

• Why was it created, and for what audience?

• What biases or perspectives might the creator have had?

These questions help historians assess the trustworthiness of a source and understand the motivations behind it. For example, when examining letters written by European traders during the fur trade, historians consider that these traders were often writing for a specific audience—such as company officials in Europe. Their descriptions of events or interactions with Indigenous peoples might have been influenced by the need to secure funding or justify their actions. Similarly, government documents related to residential schools were often written by officials who sought to promote assimilation policies, so these records may downplay the abuses that occurred.

Sourcing also involves identifying gaps in the historical record. Some voices—particularly those of marginalized groups—are often missing from official documents. For example, Indigenous perspectives on the fur trade or residential schools may not appear in European or government records, but these voices are preserved in oral histories. By recognizing who created a source and why, historians can account for bias and use other methods, like corroboration, to build a more accurate understanding of the past.

7. Ethical Considerations in Historical Inquiry

Historical inquiry is not just about gathering facts and interpreting evidence—it also involves ethical responsibilities. Historians must ensure that they approach their research with respect for the people, cultures, and communities they study, particularly when dealing with marginalized groups or sensitive historical events. In Canada, ethical considerations are particularly important when studying Indigenous histories, colonialism, and other subjects that involve the mistreatment or erasure of certain voices.

I. Respecting Diverse Perspectives

One of the key ethical principles in historical research is respecting the diverse perspectives of people who lived in the past. Historians must avoid presenting a one-sided view of history and work to include voices that have been traditionally marginalized. In Canada, this is especially relevant when studying the histories of Indigenous peoples, women, and other groups whose experiences were often left out of official records.

For example, early Canadian history textbooks often focused on the achievements of European settlers while overlooking the perspectives of Indigenous peoples who had lived in the land for thousands of years. Today, historians recognize the need to include Indigenous voices and experiences in the narrative to provide a more accurate and complete understanding of Canada’s history. This requires consulting oral histories, Indigenous-led research, and working closely with Indigenous communities.

II. Acknowledging Bias in Sources

Another ethical consideration is recognizing the bias present in historical sources. Many primary sources were created by individuals in positions of power—such as government officials, military leaders, or European colonizers—whose accounts may reflect their own agendas or prejudices. Historians have an ethical duty to acknowledge these biases and avoid perpetuating harmful stereotypes or misleading narratives.

For example, documents written by European settlers often portrayed Indigenous peoples as "uncivilized" or inferior. These biased descriptions served to justify colonization and the exploitation of Indigenous lands. By critically analyzing these sources and incorporating other perspectives, historians can avoid reinforcing colonial narratives that have harmed Indigenous communities.

III. The Ethics of Studying Sensitive Topics

Some areas of historical inquiry involve deeply sensitive topics, such as genocide, slavery, and systemic abuse. In Canada, the history of residential schools is one such topic. These schools were part of a government policy that sought to assimilate Indigenous children by forcibly removing them from their families and communities. Many survivors experienced abuse, and the effects of residential schools continue to be felt in Indigenous communities today.

When studying sensitive topics like residential schools, historians have an ethical responsibility to handle survivor testimonies and other evidence with care. This means approaching the subject with respect, understanding the trauma involved, and ensuring that the voices of survivors are heard and honored. Historians working in these areas often collaborate closely with Indigenous communities to ensure that their research supports reconciliation and healing.

IV. Reconciliation in Historical Research

In Canada, the movement toward reconciliation with Indigenous peoples has had a significant impact on how historians approach their work. Reconciliation involves acknowledging the harms caused by colonialism and working to repair the relationship between Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples. For historians, this means engaging with Indigenous communities, respecting cultural protocols, and using their research to promote understanding and healing.

Ethical historical inquiry is not just about studying the past—it’s about ensuring that the stories of the past are told in ways that are fair, respectful, and inclusive. By acknowledging bias, including marginalized voices, and handling sensitive topics with care, historians can help build a more just and accurate understanding of history.

12. Videos