Lesson 10: Indigenous and Western Views of Land 

1. Introduction

Throughout history, land has played a crucial role in shaping people’s lives and cultures. In Canada, the relationship between the land and its people is a story of deep contrasts. Indigenous peoples, who have lived on this land for thousands of years, view the land as a sacred, living entity. To them, the land is not just a physical space, but something deeply interconnected with their identity, culture, and way of life. It provides food, shelter, and medicine, but it also holds spiritual importance.

On the other hand, when European settlers arrived in Canada, they brought with them a very different view of land. To them, land was something that could be owned, controlled, and divided. It was seen as a resource to be used for farming, mining, and building settlements. This Western European perspective focused on the idea of property, ownership, and wealth, with little consideration for the spiritual or communal significance of the land that Indigenous peoples held.

This lesson will explore these two different worldviews: Indigenous and Western European. By understanding the ways Indigenous peoples and settlers viewed and used land, we can better grasp the historical conflicts that arose during colonization and how they continue to shape modern-day issues in Canada, including the ongoing movement for reconciliation and land rights.

2. Indigenous Views of Land

For Indigenous peoples, the land is much more than just a place to live—it’s a living entity that provides everything they need, from food and water to spiritual connection. Unlike Western European views, Indigenous perspectives see the land as something that cannot be owned or divided. Instead, it is viewed as sacred, and people are seen as stewards or caretakers of the land.

The land is central to Indigenous identity and culture. For example, in the past the Cree people of the boreal forest region rely on the forests, lakes, and rivers for hunting, fishing, and gathering. To them, the land was not just a source of food, but also the home of their ancestors and the basis of their cultural stories and traditions. The Inuit of the Arctic, living in one of the harshest climates on earth, have developed a deep connection to the icy landscape. They rely on animals like seals and caribou for survival, and their relationship with the land is reflected in their knowledge of the environment and respect for the animals they hunt.

Indigenous peoples believe that all living things are connected, and that the land should be treated with care and respect. This is reflected in their traditional practices, which emphasize sustainability—using resources in a way that doesn’t harm the environment or deplete it for future generations. For example, in many Indigenous cultures, there is a tradition of only taking what is needed from the land, whether it’s food, water, or materials for shelter.

One way that Indigenous peoples pass on their understanding of the land is through oral traditions and storytelling. These stories often explain how the land was created and why it is important to care for it. For many Indigenous communities, the land itself is a teacher, and the stories help younger generations learn how to live in harmony with the environment. For instance, the Haida people of the Pacific Coast have stories about the forests and the ocean that teach respect for the trees and marine life, which are vital to their culture and survival.

Another key part of Indigenous views of land is the idea of communal ownership. Unlike Western ideas of individual property rights, Indigenous communities often see land as something shared by everyone. This means that no one person or group can claim ownership over a piece of land; instead, the land belongs to the community as a whole, and everyone has a responsibility to protect and care for it.

This view of land as sacred and communal has shaped the way Indigenous peoples have lived for thousands of years. However, this perspective was challenged by European settlers, who brought with them a very different view of land use and ownership. As we will see in the next section, these contrasting views have had lasting impacts on Canada’s history and continue to shape relationships between Indigenous peoples and the Canadian government today.

3. Western European Views of Land

When Western European settlers arrived in Canada, they brought with them a very different view of land. To them, land was something that could be owned, bought, and sold. This idea of private property was central to their way of life, and it shaped how they interacted with the land in their new environment. Unlike Indigenous peoples, who saw the land as sacred and something to be shared, European settlers viewed land as a resource to be used for personal gain and development.

For Europeans, the land represented opportunity. They saw Canada’s vast forests, rich soils, and abundant resources as a means to grow crops, build homes, and establish businesses. Farming was particularly important to many settlers, especially those who came from countries like France and England, where agriculture was a big part of the economy. The fertile soils of the St. Lawrence Lowlands, for example, attracted many settlers who were eager to cultivate crops and raise livestock.

This approach to land was based on the idea of ownership—whoever controlled the land could use it as they saw fit, whether for farming, mining, or logging. European settlers divided the land into individual plots, marking boundaries with fences and claiming ownership through legal systems that were unfamiliar to Indigenous peoples. This concept of dividing and owning land was foreign to Indigenous nations, who believed in communal use and stewardship of the land for future generations.

Western European views of land were closely tied to economic goals. Settlers viewed the land as a resource that could be exploited to generate wealth, whether through agriculture, mining, or forestry. This led to significant changes in the landscape, as settlers cleared forests for farming, built roads, and established towns. Natural resources such as timber, minerals, and fur were also extracted and sold, both within the colonies and back in Europe. The fur trade, for example, became a major industry, with European demand for beaver pelts driving much of the early exploration and settlement of Canada.

The relationship that Europeans had with the land was largely based on control and productivity. To them, the land was valuable because it could be turned into something profitable. This view influenced how European settlers treated the environment—they cut down forests, dammed rivers, and mined the earth to extract its resources. In many cases, little thought was given to the long-term impacts of these actions on the land and ecosystems.

This belief in land ownership also played a significant role in the conflicts that arose between settlers and Indigenous peoples. European settlers often disregarded Indigenous land rights, claiming ownership over territories that had been used and cared for by Indigenous nations for centuries. Treaties and land agreements were often signed under the assumption that land could be divided and owned, while many Indigenous groups believed they were sharing the land and retaining the right to continue using it for traditional purposes. These misunderstandings over land ownership have had long-lasting effects, and they continue to be a source of tension in Canada today.

While European settlers were successful in establishing farms, industries, and towns, their views on land led to significant changes in the environment and Indigenous ways of life. As we will explore in the next section, these contrasting perspectives on land were at the heart of many conflicts, particularly during the signing of treaties between Indigenous nations and European settlers.

4. Case Study: The Impact of Treaties and Land Disputes

As European settlers expanded across what is now Canada, they encountered Indigenous nations who had been living on the land for thousands of years. To the settlers, securing land for farming, industry, and settlement was essential to their expansion. However, the differences in how Indigenous peoples and Europeans viewed land led to misunderstandings, especially during the signing of treaties. These treaties were agreements between Indigenous nations and European settlers (and later, the Canadian government) that often involved the exchange of land.

One of the major sources of conflict was the difference in how each side understood land ownership. To European settlers, treaties were legal documents that transferred ownership of the land to them. They believed that once a treaty was signed, the land became theirs to use, divide, and sell as they wished. However, many Indigenous peoples saw treaties as agreements to share the land, not to give it up entirely. To them, land could not be owned by one group but was something to be used and cared for by all.

The numbered treaties, signed between 1871 and 1921, are examples of this misunderstanding. These treaties were agreements between the Canadian government and various Indigenous nations, covering large areas of land across the prairies, northern Ontario, and the Northwest Territories. The government wanted the land for settlement and agriculture, while Indigenous peoples believed they were agreeing to share the land while retaining the right to continue their traditional ways of life, such as hunting and fishing. However, as European settlers moved onto the land and began farming, building railways, and establishing towns, it became clear that the two sides had very different expectations.

This difference in understanding often led to conflict. Indigenous nations saw their access to land and resources diminish as settlers took control of vast territories. Hunting grounds were lost, sacred sites were damaged, and traditional ways of life were disrupted. In many cases, the promises made to Indigenous peoples in these treaties—such as providing food, education, and protection—were not fulfilled by the Canadian government. This betrayal deepened the divide between Indigenous peoples and settlers, and the effects of these broken promises are still felt today.

In modern times, land disputes continue to be a major issue in Canada. Many Indigenous communities are fighting to reclaim land that was taken from them during colonization. For example, the Wet’suwet’en Nation in British Columbia has been involved in a long-standing dispute over their traditional lands, which they claim were never legally ceded through treaties. This dispute gained national attention when Wet’suwet’en land defenders protested the construction of a natural gas pipeline through their territory, arguing that they had not given consent for the project.

These land disputes highlight the lasting impact of the differing views on land between Indigenous peoples and European settlers. While treaties were meant to bring peace and order to land negotiations, the misunderstandings and broken promises have left a legacy of conflict. Today, efforts toward reconciliation focus on addressing these historical wrongs and finding ways to restore land rights to Indigenous communities.

5. Cultural and Spiritual Differences in Views on Land

The differences between Indigenous and Western European views of land go beyond how the land was used. These views are deeply rooted in culture and spirituality, influencing not only how people interacted with the land but also how they understood their place in the world.

For Indigenous peoples, the land is sacred. It is seen as a living entity, connected to all living things—plants, animals, and humans. This belief is reflected in many Indigenous cultures where the land is often personified as a mother or a provider. The relationship between the land and Indigenous peoples is not just about survival; it’s about respect and balance. Indigenous spirituality teaches that humans are only a small part of the larger natural world and must live in harmony with it. This belief is reflected in practices like taking only what is needed from the land and giving back through rituals, ceremonies, and sustainable use of resources. For example, before hunting or harvesting, many Indigenous communities will offer prayers or thanks to the animals or plants, recognizing their importance in the cycle of life.

In contrast, Western European views of land were shaped by ideas of ownership and control. Land was seen as something to be dominated and used for human purposes. This perspective was rooted in European history, where land ownership was a symbol of power and wealth. For settlers, owning land meant security and the ability to pass down property to future generations. This idea of land as property was not just practical—it was tied to the legal and social systems of European countries. Laws were created to protect individual ownership, and the right to own and use land became central to European settlement in Canada.

The spiritual connection to the land in Indigenous cultures also influenced their social and political structures. Many Indigenous communities developed governance systems that focused on the well-being of the land and future generations. Decisions about land use were often made collectively, with a focus on ensuring that the land would continue to provide for future generations. This concept, known today as sustainability, has been a part of Indigenous traditions for thousands of years.

Western European governance, on the other hand, was built around individual rights and property laws. Decisions about land use were often made by those who owned the land, with little consideration for the long-term impacts on the environment or on other people. The focus was on using the land for economic gain, whether through farming, mining, or development.

These cultural and spiritual differences have had a lasting impact on how land is viewed and used in Canada. Indigenous peoples continue to see the land as sacred and essential to their identity, while Western European perspectives have shaped the legal and economic systems that dominate the country today. This clash of worldviews has led to conflicts over land rights and resource use, and it remains a key issue in efforts toward reconciliation and sustainability.

6. Current Issues: Reconciliation and Land Rights

The conflict between Indigenous and Western European views of land has shaped Canada’s history and continues to influence the country today. One of the most important modern movements addressing this conflict is reconciliation. Reconciliation refers to the process of healing relationships between Indigenous peoples and the Canadian government, as well as society as a whole. At the heart of reconciliation is the issue of land rights.

For many Indigenous communities, the land is not only a source of livelihood but also the foundation of their culture, identity, and spirituality. Over the centuries, much of this land was taken away through colonization, treaties that were not honored, and government policies. Today, many Indigenous groups are fighting to reclaim their traditional lands or gain greater control over the land and resources in their territories.

One of the key components of reconciliation is addressing these historical wrongs through land claims and modern treaties. The Nunavut Land Claims Agreement, signed in 1993, is one of the most significant examples of this. This agreement gave the Inuit of Nunavut control over a vast area of land in the Arctic, allowing them to govern their territory, manage resources, and protect their culture. Other land claim agreements, such as those in Yukon and British Columbia, have also given Indigenous communities greater autonomy and control over their lands.

However, many land disputes remain unresolved. For instance, the Wet’suwet’en Nation’s opposition to a natural gas pipeline on their traditional territory has become a symbol of the ongoing struggle for land rights in Canada. The Wet’suwet’en argue that their hereditary chiefs never gave consent for the pipeline to be built, even though elected band councils did approve the project. This conflict highlights the complexities of Indigenous governance and land rights, as well as the challenges of balancing economic development with the protection of Indigenous land.

Reconciliation also involves recognizing the importance of Indigenous knowledge in managing land and resources. Many Indigenous communities have been practicing sustainable land management for centuries, emphasizing the need to care for the environment and preserve it for future generations. Today, there is growing recognition that Indigenous perspectives on sustainability can help address modern environmental challenges, such as climate change and habitat destruction.

For reconciliation to be successful, there must be a commitment to restoring land rights and listening to Indigenous voices. This means not only resolving land claims but also supporting Indigenous-led initiatives that protect the environment, preserve culture, and build stronger communities. Efforts like the Truth and Reconciliation Commission’s recommendations have highlighted the importance of land in the healing process and the need for concrete actions to address historical injustices.

As Canada continues to move forward, the relationship between Indigenous peoples and the land will remain central to reconciliation. Restoring land rights is not just about correcting past wrongs—it is also about creating a future where Indigenous peoples can thrive, and where the land is respected and protected for generations to come.

7. Conclusion

The differing views of land between Indigenous peoples and Western European settlers have shaped Canada’s history, and they continue to influence the country today. For Indigenous peoples, the land is sacred, interconnected with all living things, and central to their cultural and spiritual identity. Their relationship with the land is built on respect, stewardship, and sustainability. In contrast, Western European settlers brought with them ideas of ownership, control, and exploitation, viewing the land as a resource to be divided and used for economic gain.

These conflicting perspectives led to misunderstandings, especially during treaty negotiations, and continue to play a role in modern land disputes. Today, efforts toward reconciliation are focused on restoring land rights and recognizing the deep connection Indigenous peoples have with the land. Reconciliation involves not only addressing historical injustices but also finding ways to protect the land for future generations, learning from Indigenous knowledge and practices.

As we look toward the future, understanding these different worldviews is key to building a more inclusive and just society. The land is not just a physical space—it is a foundation of identity, culture, and sustainability. By respecting both Indigenous and Western perspectives, Canada can work toward a future where the land is honored and shared by all.