Lesson 15: Citizenship and Rights in Historical Contexts

1. Introduction to Citizenship and Rights

What is Citizenship?

Citizenship means being a member of a country. It gives people certain rights, like the right to vote, and responsibilities, like following the laws. Citizens are expected to participate in their community and help make decisions, like choosing leaders during elections. However, not everyone in a society is always given the same rights or treated equally as citizens. Throughout history, people have fought hard for the right to be recognized as citizens, and to have their rights protected.

Citizenship and Rights in History

The idea of citizenship has existed for thousands of years. In Ancient Greece, only free men born in the city-state of Athens were considered citizens. Women, slaves, and foreigners had no say in government. This limited group of citizens had more power than the rest of the population.

In the Roman Empire, the idea of citizenship expanded over time. At first, only people living in Rome were citizens. Eventually, as Rome conquered more lands, it started offering citizenship to people in other areas. Being a Roman citizen meant you had special rights, like protection under Roman law.

In colonial Canada, citizenship wasn’t based on voting or participating in a democracy. Many people, including Indigenous peoples and women, were not considered full citizens and didn’t have equal rights. For example, Indigenous people were excluded from voting for many years, and their rights were often ignored.

Today, we believe that everyone should have equal rights, but this wasn’t always the case. Some groups, such as the Métis, fought for years to gain recognition and rights in Canada. Over time, the criteria for being a citizen and having rights have changed in many countries. It’s important to learn about these changes so we can understand how citizenship works today and why it’s important to protect everyone’s rights.

2. Criteria for Citizenship in Different Historical Societies

Throughout history, different societies have used various criteria to decide who could be a citizen. These criteria often included factors like gender, race, property ownership, social status, and place of birth. Below are some examples of how citizenship was defined in different societies.

Ancient Athens

In Ancient Athens (about 2,500 years ago), citizenship was very exclusive. Only free men born to Athenian parents were considered citizens. This meant that women, slaves, and foreigners living in Athens were not allowed to participate in the government. Athenian citizens could vote, serve in public office, and own land. However, this right came with responsibilities, including military service and the duty to contribute to public life. Most of the population had no political power because they didn’t meet these strict citizenship rules.

The system in Athens showed that being a citizen wasn’t just about living in a place; it was about meeting certain conditions that allowed people to have a say in their government. Citizenship was seen as a privilege, not a right for everyone.

Ancient Rome

In the Roman Empire, citizenship evolved over time. At first, only people from the city of Rome were granted citizenship. This citizenship came with important benefits, including legal protection and the ability to own property. Roman citizens also had the right to vote and hold public office, but like in Athens, citizenship came with duties, such as paying taxes and serving in the military.

As Rome grew into a large empire, it needed to control many different regions. One way it did this was by expanding citizenship to people in the lands it conquered. Some conquered people could become citizens if they were loyal to Rome, served in the army, or contributed to the Roman economy. This expansion of citizenship allowed Rome to keep control over its vast territories and win the support of its people.

Rome’s method of granting citizenship helped make the empire more stable. The people who were granted citizenship were more likely to support the Roman government because they enjoyed the benefits that came with it.

Colonial Canada (1800s)

In the 1800s, colonial Canada had a very different approach to citizenship. Canada was still under British control, and the rules for citizenship were largely influenced by Britain. Indigenous peoples, including the Métis, were not considered full citizens. They were often denied basic rights, like voting, owning land, or having a say in government decisions.

At that time, Canada’s laws favoured European settlers, especially those of British descent. Many Indigenous people were excluded from the political process because they didn’t meet the government’s definition of citizenship. Women, too, were not considered full citizens and couldn’t vote until the early 20th century. The criteria for citizenship were based heavily on race, gender, and colonial power structures. This exclusion of Indigenous peoples and women would eventually lead to long struggles for equal rights in the years to come.

Apartheid South Africa

In South Africa, from 1948 to 1994, a system of racial segregation called Apartheid was in place. Under Apartheid, the government made laws that separated people based on their race. White South Africans, who were a minority, had full citizenship rights. They could vote, hold public office, and access the best jobs, schools, and healthcare.

On the other hand, Black South Africans, who made up the majority of the population, were denied many basic rights. They could not vote or participate in the government, and they were forced to live in separate areas from white citizens. This system of racial exclusion created deep inequalities in South Africa and led to years of protest and violence. It wasn’t until the 1990s that Apartheid was finally dismantled, and all South Africans were given equal citizenship rights, regardless of race.

Modern Canadian Citizenship

Today, Canada has a more inclusive approach to citizenship. The criteria for becoming a Canadian citizen include being born in Canada or going through a legal immigration process to become a citizen. This process usually involves living in Canada for a certain period, passing a citizenship test, and swearing an oath of loyalty to the country.

Canada’s current citizenship policies are much more inclusive than they were in the past. For example, Indigenous peoples are recognized as citizens with full rights, and Canada’s laws protect against discrimination based on race, gender, and other factors. However, the history of exclusion—especially for groups like the Métis and other Indigenous peoples—has left a lasting impact on how citizenship is viewed in Canada today.

3. Oppression of Rights in Different Historical Contexts

Throughout history, different groups of people have been denied their rights because they didn’t meet the criteria for citizenship, or because they belonged to a certain race, gender, or class. This denial of rights often led to oppression, where people were treated unfairly and prevented from fully participating in society. Below are examples from different times and places where people's rights were oppressed based on who they were.

Indigenous Peoples in Canada

For many years, Indigenous peoples in Canada, including First Nations, Inuit, and Métis, were denied full citizenship rights. Indigenous peoples were not allowed to vote in federal elections until 1960. Before that, Indigenous men and women were considered “wards” of the state, meaning the government controlled many aspects of their lives. Even though they lived in what is now Canada long before European settlers arrived, they were treated as if they didn’t belong in the same way that settlers did.

One of the ways the Canadian government tried to control Indigenous peoples was through the Indian Act (passed in 1876), which gave the government power over many parts of Indigenous peoples' lives, including where they could live and how they could use their land. Many Indigenous people were forced to live on reserves, which were small areas of land, often far from their traditional homes. This system separated them from the rest of the population and restricted their rights.

Women’s Rights in Canada

For much of Canadian history, women were not treated as equal citizens. They were denied many rights that men had, including the right to vote and the right to own property. Women were often seen as belonging to the household, and their main role was considered to be caring for children and the home.

It wasn’t until 1916 that women in Manitoba became the first in Canada to win the right to vote in provincial elections. Over the next few years, women in other provinces won the right to vote as well, with the last province, Quebec, granting women the right to vote in 1940. Women finally gained the right to vote in federal elections in 1918, and they could start running for political office, but the path to full equality has been long. Even today, there are ongoing challenges as women continue to fight for equal treatment in areas like pay and representation in leadership roles.

African Americans in the United States

In the United States, African Americans were oppressed for many years, even after they were legally freed from slavery in 1865 following the American Civil War. Although they were given citizenship through the 14th Amendment in 1868, African Americans were still denied basic rights, especially in the southern states.

Laws known as Jim Crow laws enforced racial segregation, which kept Black people and white people apart in public places like schools, restaurants, and buses. These laws were designed to keep African Americans from having the same rights and opportunities as white people. Black people couldn’t vote, attend the same schools as white people, or even use the same public restrooms. This segregation lasted until the Civil Rights Movement in the 1950s and 1960s, when activists like Martin Luther King Jr. fought for equality.

It wasn’t until the passage of the Civil Rights Act in 1964 and the Voting Rights Act in 1965 that many of these discriminatory laws were finally overturned, giving African Americans the full citizenship rights they had been denied for so long.

Residential Schools in Canada

One of the most painful parts of Canada’s history is the residential school system, which operated for over 100 years. The government, along with churches, set up these schools to assimilate Indigenous children into European-Canadian culture. Starting in the 1880s, Indigenous children were taken away from their families and forced to attend these schools, where they were forbidden from speaking their languages and practicing their traditions.

The goal of residential schools was to erase Indigenous cultures and make the children adopt the ways of European settlers. This was a clear violation of their rights as Indigenous peoples. The children suffered from terrible conditions in these schools, including physical, emotional, and sexual abuse. Many children never returned home. The last residential school closed in 1996, but the legacy of these schools continues to affect Indigenous communities today.

The Canadian government has since recognized the harm caused by the residential school system. In 2008, Canada issued a formal apology to the survivors, and in 2015, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission called on the country to take steps to heal the relationship between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Canadians.

LGBTQ+ Rights in Canada

The oppression of the LGBTQ+ community (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and others) in Canada has a long history as well. For many years, LGBTQ+ individuals were denied basic rights, such as the right to marry, the right to adopt children, and protection from discrimination.

For example, it wasn’t until 2005 that Canada legalized same-sex marriage, making it one of the first countries in the world to do so. Before that, LGBTQ+ people faced discrimination in many areas of life. In the past, people could even lose their jobs if their sexual orientation was discovered.

While Canada has made significant progress in recognizing the rights of LGBTQ+ individuals, there are still issues that the community faces today, including ongoing discrimination and a lack of representation in certain areas of society. However, modern laws protect people from being discriminated against based on their sexual orientation or gender identity, and LGBTQ+ rights are an important part of human rights discussions in Canada today.

4. The History of Métis Rights in Canada

The Métis are a distinct Indigenous group in Canada, descended from European settlers and Indigenous peoples, primarily First Nations women. The Métis developed their own culture, language (Michif), and way of life, especially in what is now Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta. However, like other Indigenous groups, the Métis faced many challenges in gaining recognition of their rights as citizens of Canada. Here are some important milestones in the history of Métis rights.

Louis Riel and the Red River Rebellion (1869–1870)

One of the most significant events in Métis history is the Red River Rebellion. By the late 1860s, the Métis were concerned about settlers moving into their territory near the Red River Settlement (modern-day Manitoba). The government of Canada was preparing to take control of the land from the Hudson's Bay Company without consulting the Métis, who lived there.

To defend their land and way of life, the Métis, led by Louis Riel, formed a provisional government. They negotiated with the Canadian government, demanding that the rights of the Métis be respected. As a result of their efforts, the Manitoba Act was passed in 1870, which created the province of Manitoba. The Act promised the Métis land rights and the protection of their culture. However, many of these promises were not fully kept, leading to ongoing struggles for the Métis.

The North-West Rebellion (1885)

In the years following the Red River Rebellion, many Métis moved west to what is now Saskatchewan, hoping to find a better life. However, they soon faced similar problems as more settlers arrived, and the government ignored their land claims. Once again, Louis Riel emerged as a leader of the Métis. In 1885, Riel led the North-West Rebellion (also called the Northwest Resistance), fighting against the Canadian government to protect Métis land and rights.

The rebellion ended in defeat for the Métis. Riel was captured, tried, and executed for treason. His execution angered many French Canadians and Indigenous peoples, who saw it as a symbol of the government’s unwillingness to respect their rights. Riel remains a controversial figure in Canadian history—seen by many as a hero of Métis rights and by others as a rebel.

The Métis Scrip System

One of the ways the government tried to deal with Métis land claims was through the scrip system. Instead of creating reserves for the Métis, as they did for many First Nations, the government gave Métis people scrip, which were certificates that could be exchanged for land or money. However, the system was flawed, and many Métis people ended up losing their land. Some Métis were tricked into selling their scrip for much less than it was worth, while others found that the land they were offered was far from their traditional homes and unsuitable for farming.

The loss of their land made it difficult for the Métis to maintain their way of life. Without a land base, many Métis communities became scattered, and their culture and identity were threatened. The scrip system remains a symbol of broken promises and the challenges the Métis faced in securing their rights.

Recognition of Métis Rights in the Constitution (1982)

For many years, the Métis fought for recognition as one of Canada’s Indigenous peoples. A major victory came in 1982 when the Constitution Act recognized the Métis as one of the three Aboriginal groups in Canada, along with First Nations and Inuit. Section 35 of the Constitution guaranteed the Métis certain rights, including land and resource rights, although it left many details undefined. This recognition was an important step toward addressing the historical wrongs faced by the Métis, but the fight for full recognition of their rights was far from over.

Daniels v. Canada (2016)

Another major milestone for Métis rights came with the Daniels v. Canada case in 2016. The Supreme Court of Canada ruled that the federal government has a responsibility to recognize and protect the rights of Métis and non-status Indians (Indigenous peoples not recognized under the Indian Act). This decision was important because it clarified that Métis people fall under federal jurisdiction and are entitled to the same protections and rights as other Indigenous peoples in Canada.

The Daniels decision was a major victory for the Métis, as it opened the door for more recognition and support from the federal government. This ruling has led to new negotiations between Métis communities and the government, with the aim of improving Métis rights and resources.

Métis Rights Today

Today, the Métis continue to fight for their rights in Canada. Métis governments and organizations work to preserve their culture, protect their land, and ensure their rights are respected. The Métis National Council represents the interests of Métis people across the country and works with the federal government to secure further recognition and support.

Recent agreements, such as self-government agreements in Manitoba, Alberta, and Ontario, have given Métis communities more control over their own affairs. However, the Métis still face challenges, particularly when it comes to land claims and the recognition of their historic rights. The struggle for Métis rights is ongoing, but the progress made in recent years shows that the Métis are continuing to assert their place in Canadian society.

5. Evaluating Citizenship and Rights Today

The concept of citizenship has changed a lot over time, and it continues to evolve today. In modern Canada, the government recognizes that all citizens should have equal rights, no matter their race, gender, or background. However, there are still challenges when it comes to citizenship and the protection of rights, especially for Indigenous peoples like the Métis.

Modern Challenges

Even though Canadian laws now aim to treat everyone equally, there are still groups that face barriers. For example, immigrants and refugees must go through a long process to gain citizenship, which can make it difficult for them to access certain rights, such as voting or receiving social benefits. There are also ongoing issues with how non-citizens, such as temporary workers, are treated. They often have fewer rights than Canadian citizens, even though they contribute to the economy and society.

Indigenous peoples, including the Métis, still face challenges related to the recognition of their rights, especially in areas like land claims and self-governance. While there has been progress in recognizing Métis rights through court rulings and agreements, these efforts are still ongoing. For many Métis, gaining full recognition of their historic rights is an important goal for the future.

Métis Rights Today

The recognition of Métis rights in Canada has come a long way, but there are still gaps. Self-government agreements in recent years have given Métis communities more control over their own affairs. These agreements allow Métis people to manage their own services and programs, preserving their culture and language while working toward economic stability. Still, issues like land disputes remain a significant challenge.

Comparing Historical and Modern Criteria

When we look at history, it’s clear that the criteria for citizenship and rights have changed. In the past, people were often excluded based on their race, gender, or social class. Today, we believe that everyone should be treated equally, but there are still many lessons to learn from history.

For example, the Métis fought for years to be recognized as citizens with rights, and their struggle shows us how important it is to protect everyone’s rights. Modern Canada has made progress, but the challenges faced by groups like the Métis remind us that citizenship is more than just a legal status—it’s about belonging and having your rights respected.

6. Conclusion and Key Takeaways

Throughout history, the idea of citizenship has changed and evolved. In different societies, whether it was Ancient Athens, Ancient Rome, colonial Canada, or Apartheid South Africa, the criteria for who could be a citizen—and therefore who could exercise rights—depended on factors like birth, race, gender, and social class. Many people were excluded from full citizenship and denied basic rights.

In Canada, Indigenous peoples, including the Métis, were denied full citizenship for many years. They were often excluded from voting, owning land, or participating in the government. Groups like the Métis had to fight hard for recognition of their rights, leading to important moments in history like the Red River Rebellion, North-West Rebellion, and more recent legal victories, such as the Daniels v. Canada decision in 2016.

Today, Canadian citizenship is based on equality, but challenges still remain. The history of Métis rights reminds us that citizenship is not just about legal status—it's also about having the ability to exercise your rights, be recognized by your government, and feel a sense of belonging in your country. The fight for Métis rights shows how important it is to recognize and protect the rights of all citizens, regardless of their background.

In learning about these struggles, we can better understand how citizenship has evolved and why it’s crucial to ensure that everyone in society is treated fairly and has access to the same rights and opportunities.